Return of the alpha male: Why toxic masculinity is gaining prominence

Now, the British-American figurehead of the online masculinist movement has left Romania for the United States with his brother Tristan, despite facing rape and human trafficking charges in Bucharest.

The two brothers, outspoken supporters of US President Donald Trump, are now in Florida, where a criminal investigation has been opened against them.

According to Jacob Johanssen, associate professor of communications at St Mary's University in London, there has been "a normalisation of misogyny, rape culture and violence against women and girls".

The rise of the so-called "manosphere" -- made up of online forums and communities that promote masculinism and misogyny -- is "intrinsically linked to the growth of right-wing populism across many parts of the world", Johanssen told AFP.

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Men 'alienated'

With Trump's offensive against diversity and inclusion policies, hailed by hard-right politicians in several countries, "anti-woke" rhetoric is gaining ground.

In January, Meta founder and CEO Mark Zuckerberg called for a return to "masculine energy".

"What we're seeing is a new dynamic," said Joshua Thorburn, a doctoral candidate at Australia's Monash University researching online misogyny, adding that there is now "more visibility" for such ideas.

While some feminist researchers have long warned of an impending conservative backlash against advances in women's rights, experts interviewed by AFP point to a crisis in masculinity.

"We live in an unstable and precarious world and men, as well as everyone else, face many problems today. They feel alienated," according to Johanssen.

This, experts say, is where the manosphere comes in, with its online forums and YouTube channels.

"The different communities in the manosphere function like self-help groups for men where they can discuss issues such as mental health, vulnerability or loneliness," Johanssen said.

"But at the same time, those spaces also contain very toxic discussions of misogyny and sexism."

'Tricking' young men

According to Thorburn, a large section of manosphere content also "relates to things a lot of young men may be looking for online, such as dating advice, health and fitness advice, and financial advice".

"A young man or teenager may not be explicitly searching for misogynistic content when they first encounter a manosphere influencer's content or a manosphere community," he said.

AFP spoke to a 15-year-old Londoner called Alistair who said he enjoys this kind of content. He is a fan of the YouTube channel and podcast FreshandFit, which describes itself as dedicated to "men's self-improvement".

However, in addition to videos on how to achieve dream muscles, other segments discuss why "women are so hypocritical" or why men and women "could never be equal".

Alistair, who is also a fan of Andrew Tate, does not see any issue. "It's about sport and how to make it in life," the secondary school pupil told AFP. "Where's the harm?"

In recent weeks, the British television series "Adolescence" has won praise for its exploration of the subject through the story of a 13-year-old boy who murders a schoolgirl, influenced by online misogyny.

The screenwriters said they were inspired by several real-life events and hoped the show could help audiences understand how boys and young men are influenced by the manosphere.

In a speech on Wednesday, former England football manager Gareth Southgate slammed "toxic" influencers who "trick young men into believing that success is measured by money or dominance... and that the world, including women, is against them".